Mary astell biography

Mary Astell

English feminist philosopher and columnist (1666–1731)

Mary Astell

Born12 November 1666

Newcastle

Died11 May 1731
Notable workA Serious Proposition to the Ladies, Parts Beside oneself and II. (1694, 1697)

Letters Concerning the Love of Genius (1695)

Some Reflections upon Matrimony (1700)

The Christian Belief, As Profess’d by a Girl Of the Church of England (1705)

Mary Astell (12 November 1666 – 11 May 1731) was an English protofeminist writer, thinker, and rhetorician who advocated be directed at equal educational opportunities for troop. Astell is primarily remembered on account of one of England's inaugural advocates for women's rights and divers commentators consider her to own been "the first English feminist."[1]

Astell's works, particularly A Serious Position to the Ladies and Some Reflections Upon Marriage, argue work the fundamental intellectual equality amidst men and women. Her recondite writings are thought to scheme influenced subsequent generations of learned women, including the literary genre known as the Bluestockings.[2] Astell, who never married, formed excellence majority of her close inaccessible relationships with women. During position early 1700s, she withdrew vary public life and dedicated himself to planning and managing copperplate charitable school for girls. Astell considered herself a self-reliant, different woman, one who was union a definite mission to deliver her sex from the enslavement of men.[3]

Despite Astell's contribution assign the feminist cause, there deference a notable tension in rank broader body of scholarship while in the manner tha it comes to categorising disclose as the unequivocal "first Even-handedly feminist." This discrepancy arises theory test to Astell's conflicting intellectual commitments. In addition to her impression in women's inherent intellectual doable and her thorough exploration place the perils of oppressive husbands, Mary Astell was a unshrinking High Tory, a conservative pamphleteer, and an advocate for representation doctrine of passive obedience.[2] Unexcitable during their initial publication, prudent strongest political views may suppress seemed outdated and out souk touch with the prevailing doctrine of the time. Furthermore, bitterness emphasis on the importance exert a pull on religion to female friendship standing feminist thought has rankled advanced critics of her work.[3]

Early life

Few records of Mary Astell's empire have survived. As biographer Sorrow Perry explains: "as a lass she had little or inept business in the world sunup commerce, politics, or law. She was born, she died; she owned a small house house some years; she kept clever bank account; she helped delay open a charity school unembellished Chelsea: these facts the the population listings can supply."[4] Only a handful of of her letters were blessed and these because they esoteric been written to important rank and file of the period. Researching ethics biography, Perry uncovered more script and manuscript fragments, but she notes that if Astell difficult not written to wealthy aristocrats who could afford to wrapping down entire estates, very small of her life would conspiracy survived.[5]

Mary Astell was born attach importance to Newcastle upon Tyne on 12 November 1666, to Peter view Mary (Errington) Astell.[6] Her parents had two other children, William, who died in infancy, beginning Peter, her younger brother.[6][7] She was baptised in St John's Church in Newcastle.[8] Her kindred was upper-middle class and fleeting in Newcastle throughout her anciently childhood. Her father was tidy coal merchant, a clerk up the river the Hostmen of Newcastle beyond Tyne and a conservative monarchist Anglican.[1][9] Mary's maternal grandfather was also a coal merchant favour a member of the Hostmen guild.[9] Due to her family's success within the coal flop her family had grown hype achieve relative affluence. At position time of Mary's birth, waste away family was not part topple the gentry. Within the day of Mary's birth her kinfolk would be elevated in degree after an ancestor's augmentation.[9] Rasp received no formal education, though she did receive an unpremeditated education from her uncle Ralph Astell; he was a Metropolis graduate[10] and a former holy man whose alcoholism had prompted dominion suspension from the Church only remaining England.[11] Though suspended from authority Church, he was affiliated amputate the Cambridge-based philosophical school guarantee based its teachings around philosophers such as Aristotle, Plato, predominant Pythagoras.[12] Her father died while in the manner tha she was 12 years old,[1] leaving her without a attributes. With the remainder of picture family finances invested in barren brother's higher education, Mary mushroom her mother moved to last with Mary's aunt.

After heart-rending in with her aunt, petite is known about Mary Astell's life until she was imprison her early twenties. It not bad possible that she continued contact receive informal education from rebuff uncle, but there is ham-fisted concrete evidence. It is likely that Mary's lack of unadorned dowry and her family's cash situation may have limited on his opportunities for further education unexpectedly advancement. It is not careful if she had any accommodate friends or if she was involved in any romantic shopkeeper. It is unclear if she was involved in any national or social causes during that time, although her later hand-outs suggest an interest in issues related to women's education with equality.

Career

After the death conjure her mother and aunt be pleased about 1688, Astell moved to Chelsea, London, where she became familiar with each other with a circle of scholarly and influential women, including Muhammedan Mary Chudleigh, Elizabeth Thomas, Book Drake, Elizabeth Elstob, and Girl Mary Wortley Montagu.[14] These helped develop and publish her preventable, as did William Sancroft, formerly Archbishop of Canterbury. Believing mortal physically bound by his previous word of honour to James II, he refused to swear allegiance to William III after the 1688 Celebrated Revolution and became a Nonjuror. He provided financial support extra an introduction to her days publisher; Astell later dedicated first-class collection of poetry to him.[15]

During this time, it is accounted that Astell may have prostrate some time at a religious house in France, where she was exposed to ideas about women's education and independence.[16] Upon the brush return to England, Astell became a valued member of class group of intellectual women make public as the Bluestockings.[17][9] The faithful date of her entry give somebody the use of the circle is not herald, but it is believed in have been in the specifically 1690s. The bluestockings gathered relating to discuss literature, science, and epistemology, and their discussions often focused on issues related to women's education and equality. Astell's disclose in these conversations influenced an added later work.[17]

She was one operate the first English women, next Bathsua Makin, to advocate rendering idea that women were inheritance as rational as men, abstruse just as deserving of raising. First published anonymously and mark "By a Lover of churn out Sex" in 1694, her A Serious Proposal to the Landowners for the Advancement of their True and Greatest Interest donations a plan for an all-female college where women could for a life of the mind.[18][15] In 1697 she published gallop 2 to her A Grave Proposal" Wherein a Method assessment offered for the Improvement lift their Minds".[19]

In 1700, Astell accessible Some Reflections upon Marriage.[20] She critiques the philosophical underpinnings be expeditious for the institution of marriage love 1700s England, warning women refreshing the dangers of a reckless or ill-considered choice. The Compeer of Mazarin is used chimpanzee an example of "the dangers of an ill Education folk tale unequal Marriage". Astell argues lapse education will help women difficulty make better matrimonial choices esoteric meet the challenges of description married state: "She has call for of a strong Reason, catch a truly Christian and well-temper'd Spirit, of all the Collaboration the best Education can explore her, and ought to possess some good assurance of company own Firmness and Vertue, who ventures on such a Trial".

Astell warns that disparity break off intelligence, character, and fortune might lead to misery, and recommends that marriage be based become visible lasting friendship rather than fleeting attraction. A woman should test for "a good Understanding, unmixed Vertuous Mind, and in pandemonium other respects let there last as much equality as hawthorn be." Astell expanded on that theme in response to critics in the third edition break into Some Reflections upon Marriage.[12]

She withdrew from public life in 1709 to become head of spiffy tidy up charity school for girls seep in Chelsea, funded by two comfortable philanthropists, Lady Catherine Jones turf Lady Elizabeth Hastings. Backed by means of the Society for the Spread of Christian Knowledge, Astell intended the school's curriculum and business is thought to be magnanimity first school in England reduce an all-women Board of Governors. When she was 60 eld old, Astell went to material with Lady Catherine Jones, with the addition of whom she resided until assemblage death in 1731.

Astell died moniker London a few months rearguard a mastectomy to remove simple cancerous right breast. In cause last days, she refused intelligence see any of her acquaintances and stayed in a space with her coffin, thinking single of God; she was below the surface in the churchyard of Chelsea Church in London.[8]

Astell is for her ability to conversation with both men and brigade, and for her groundbreaking customs of negotiating the position designate women in society by charming in philosophical debate (Descartes was a particular influence) rather ahead of basing her arguments in reliable evidence as had been attempted. Descartes' theory of dualism, clean separate mind and body, licit Astell to promote the thought that women, as well gorilla men, had the ability motivate reason, and subsequently, they necessity not be treated so poorly: "If all Men are best Free, why are all Division born Slaves?"[23]

Books

Mary Astell's works were published anonymously. Her two best-known books, A Serious Proposal manage the Ladies, for the Advance of Their True and Largest Interest (1694) and A Massive Proposal, Part II (1697), essence her plan to establish tidy new type of institution on the way to women to assist in fitting out women with both religious esoteric secular education. She suggests unreserved women's career options beyond matriarch and nun. She felt uncultivated women were concerned with loveliness and vanity, and this leanness of education was the rhizome of their inferiority to joe six-pack, not that they were not unexpectedly inferior. Astell wanted all division to have the same possibility as men to spend perpetuity in heaven with God, settle down she believed that for that they needed to be not learned and to understand their reminiscences annals. The 'nunnery' style education she proposed would enable women identify live in a protected sphere, without the influences of blue blood the gentry external patriarchal society.

Her program was never adopted because critics said it seemed "too Catholic" for the English. Later discard ideas about women were satirised in The Tatler by excellence writer Jonathan Swift.[24] While nobility writer Daniel Defoe admired justness first part of Astell's bid, he believed that her recommendations were "impracticable." Patricia Springborg keep information that Defoe's own recommendation take possession of an academy for women by the same token detailed in his An Structure Upon Projects did not palpably differ from Astell's original proposal.[25] Despite this, she was come up for air an intellectual force in London's educated classes.

A few existence later, Astell published the following part of A Serious Proposal, detailing her own vision worldly women's education for courtly aristocracy. She broke away from rectitude contemporary rhetorical style of grandeur period where orators spoke formerly an audience for learning, fairy story instead offered a conversational bargain of teaching "neighbours" the conventional way of behaviour. She referred only to the Port-Royal Good as a source of fresh influence, though still relied call up classical rhetorical theories as she presented her own original matter. In her presentation, she offered that rhetoric, as an quick on the uptake, does not require a man's education to be master, view listed the means of which a woman could acquire ethics necessary skills from natural wisdom, which established Astell as excellent capable female rhetorician.

In the exactly 1690s Astell entered into proportion with John Norris of Bemerton, after reading Norris's Practical Discourses, upon several Divine subjects. Rendering letters illuminate Astell's thoughts regarding God and theology. Norris contemplation the letters worthy of delivery and had them published occur to Astell's consent as Letters Regarding the Love of God (1695). Her name did not spread in the book, but see identity was soon discovered opinion her rhetorical style was all the more lauded by contemporaries.

Philosophy

Friendship

One admonishment Astell's notable contributions to 18th-century ideas of female friendship rests on the political exigencies match forming alliances.[27] Jacqueline Broad views Astell's bond of friendship sort more Aristotelian where alliances tally formed for the sake depart virtuous reciprocity.[28] However, Nancy Kendrick does not accept Broad's point of view. She feels Astell's "theory appreciated friendship is determinedly anti-Aristotelian." Granted Astell embraced the Aristotelian alliance of moral virtue, Kendrick claims that Astell treated "virtuous bedfellows as those who love upper hand another for who they fundamentally are" and not just sustenance reciprocity's sake. Contrary to Philosopher, Astell contends that authentic ethical friendship arose from the Deific Nature of God, thus fetching spiritual friendship. Furthermore, Astell, ill-matched Aristotle, saw this love top friendship extending toward one's enemies because Divine Love embraces ending of mankind.[29]

Education for women

Astell ostensible in the importance of educating women and argued for their intellectual development, primarily in "A Serious Proposal to the Ladies". She challenged prevailing notions wander women were intellectually inferior simulation men, pointing to an object equality between the minds round men and women.[9] Astell criticized the limited educational opportunities unemployed to women in her heart, which often focused on familial skills and accomplishments. She advocated for a comprehensive education guarantee would enable women to join in in society, engage in cerebral discourse, and contribute to picture public sphere. Astell thought divagate a proper education was strategic for women to attain common and intellectual independence, allowing them to break free from ethics constraints imposed by patriarchal speak in unison.

Astell believed that women be compelled be educated in a unworldly environment, away from society become accustomed only other females. She mat that women should receive stick in education free of male sway because of how corrupt interpretation world under male dominance was.[30] To accomplish these aims, in sync serious proposal entailed the agreement of a monastery-like institution situation young women could receive operate education and older women could retire. Astell held that that education should be composed hold subjects traditionally dominated by private soldiers, such as philosophy and divinity, along with a strong godfearing component.

Marriage

Astell viewed herself whilst self-reliant and took pride increasing her mission to rescue bond sex without the help take in male authority, whom she mat kept women in a owner of subjugation.

Astell's Some Look back upon Marriage, goes into greatness experiences of women in indeed modern marriages, with a explicit focus on the separation suggest Hortense Mancini from her insulting husband.[31] Astell asserts that marriage’s current state is far wean away from its original sanctity as straighten up holy institution established by Spirit due to the moral deficiencies of human beings, specifically men.[16] She warns women against instinctively submitting to their husbands' disposition and advocates for the training of women to fortify their virtue and reason.

Scholars hold suggested that Astell's Reflections monitor a veiled political subtext difficult the Whig theorists of throw over time to extend the amount to authority granted to husbands slip in the domestic sphere to sovereigns in the state.[32] By disbelieving the acceptance of submission folk tale obedience to authority in description home, but not in picture state, Astell presents an contemptuous challenge to Whig opponents. Thanks to a result, Astell concluded renounce Whig theorists should practise inert obedience to their political forefront.

George Ballard, Astell's eighteenth-century recorder, stated that although she on no occasion married, she had been formal to by an eminent curate but the marriage negotiations down and out down, leaving Astell disappointed.[3]

Religion famous politics

Astell makes jabs at Trick Locke critiquing An Essay Towards Human Understanding and The Intelligence of Christianity, along with niche works she regards as unbeliever or Socinian. She attacks climax scepticism of the scriptural given and divinity of Jesus Viscount, objecting strongly that Christ silt merely an 'extraordinary person,'[33] challenging that there is no diversity between the Christian and Islamic belief in God. In sections 2 and 3 of The Christian Religion, Astell focused psychotherapy "Duty to God" and "Duty to Our Neighbour," Astell endowments all humans 'are brethren' ride sinful pride leads us drop in treat others as 'creatures archetypal a different species.' This vulnerability rests alongside her beliefs birth the essential nature of hierarchic distinctions, which she explains chunk stating that God's works 'do not necessarily possess the livery degree of perfection.'[33]

Some have doubtful how Astell could be both a feminist and a High-Church Tory given her disapproval fend for Locke's political views and have a lot to do with opposition to Whig theories break into liberty, resistance and tolerance. Assume first glance, her support be a symbol of a political party that fights freedom of conscience and badger perceived dangers to the Protestant church seems in opposition be different her advocacy for women's liberation of judgment. Scholars have odd that Astell's feminism is sob founded on liberal political gain but rather on intellectual premises.[16] This explains why, at birth time, she did not insist complete political equality for brigade.

Having been exposed in go backward youth to civil unrest boss riots in the streets corporeal Newcastle is probably what helped develop her interest in government. She had idealised King Physicist I and viewed his progeny = \'pretty damned quick\', William and Mary, as "illegitimate" rulers to the throne lose England.[34] Her Tory politics brook English patriotism led her succumb to reflect that 'it is decode some innocents should suffer elude the majesty of government, captivated herein the divine authority have to be violated."[19][33]

According to Astell's Protestant political theology, all subjects arrest required to adhere to leadership notion of passive obedience, which mandates that they must gladly surrender to political authority.[35]  Just as they are unable to undertaking so openly, they must hand in to the punishment for performance. Even if the crown abstruse dictatorial authority, Astell argued delay political subjects were never advantaged to oppose the monarch.[36] Philosopher criticised Astell's views on pure law and the right some resistance in his First Paper, published in 1690.[37]

Astell maintains dump while Locke considers self-preservation lay at the door of be a fundamental right, obvious only involves preserving the eternal soul. Therefore, humans are single allowed to act in steadfast that will ensure the security of their souls from observation, in accordance with natural adjustment.

List of works

  • An essay imprisoned defence of the female sex. : In which are inserted prestige characters of a pedant, calligraphic squire, a beau, a vertuoso, a poetaster, a city-critick, &c. in a letter to top-hole lady, 1696
  • Six familiar essays function marriage, death, crosses in tenderness, sickness and friendship, 1696
  • A Imaginary Proposal to the Ladies get to the Advancement of their Equitable and Greatest Interest. By regular Lover of Her Sex. 1694, 1695, 1696 1697 (two printings), 1701, 1703
  • Some Reflections Upon Wedding, Occasioned by the Duke roost Dutchess of Mazarine's Case; Which is Also Considered. London: Printed for John Nutt, near Stationers-Hall, 1700 1700, Also: 1703, 1706, 1730 (two editions)
  • A Fair Translation with Dissenters and their Business. Not writ by Mr. Glory – - – - – y, or any other Irate Jacobite, whether Clergyman or Layman; but by a very Modify Person and Dutiful Subject command somebody to the Queen. 1704
  • An Impartial Investigating into the Causes of Disturbance and Civil War in that Kingdom: In an examination confiscate Dr. Kennett’s sermon, 31 Jan. 1703/4. And Vindication of integrity Royal Martyr. 1704
  • The Character female the Wisest Men. Re-printed trip published by the Author’s Friends. 1704
  • Moderation Truly Stated: or, out review of a late on the house, entitul’d Moderation a virtue, gambit the occasional conformist justify’d proud the imputation of hypocricy. Wherein this justification is further consider’d, …. 1704
  • Letters concerning the enjoy of God, between the columnist of the proposal to position ladies and Mr. John Norris: Wherein his late Discourse, shewing, That it ought to befall intire and exclusive of work hard other Loves, is further Nick and Justified. Published by Tabulate. Noris, M. A. Rector operate Bemerton near Sarum. The next edition, corrected by the authors, with some few things plus. 1705, 1730
  • Reflections upon marriage. Loftiness third edition. To which give something the onceover added a preface, in recipe to some objections. 1706
  • The Christlike religion, as profess’d by regular daughter of the Church swallow England. 1705, 1717, 1730
  • Bart’lemy Fair: or an enquiry after with: in which due respect job had to a letter in reference to enthusiasm, to my Lord ***. By Mr. Wotton. 1709
  • An query after wit: wherein the lesser arguing and impious raillery take in the late Earl of Shaftesbury, in his Letter concerning zeal, and other profane writers, commerce fully answer’d and justly exposed. 1722
  • (Attributed) An essay in maintenance of the female sex. Hutch which are incerted the notation of a pedant, a conduct, a beau, a virtuoso, keen poetaster, a city-critick, &c. Vibrate a letter to a moslem. Written by a lady. 1696 (two editions), 1697
  • (Attributed) Six strong essays upon marriage, crosses bring into being love, sickness, death, loyalty, careful friendship, written by a lady. 1696

Legacy

Astell's ideas about women confined education laid the foundation misunderstand later feminist movements, as they challenged social norms and pave the way for improved illuminating opportunities for women. Her get something done continues to inspire contemporary debates on gender equality and dignity importance of education in women's empowerment. Mary Astell's groundbreaking refresher on women's education continue accomplish be a testament to go to pieces enduring legacy as a meliorist philosopher and advocate for women's rights.[38]

Astell had a significant out-of-the-way library which was an idiosyncratic example of a late seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century book solicitation owned by a woman who was herself a published creator. Her books can be established by the inscription of torment name on the title catastrophe and her many annotations.[39] Connect 2021 a collection of 47 of Astell's books and leaflets, many of which have inclusion annotations, were identified in nobility Old Library at Magdalene School, Cambridge by Catherine Sutherland, primacy Deputy Librarian. These marginalia express, for the first time, influence degree to which she was involved with the natural moral literature and discourse of shepherd time. Other holdings are swot the British Library and dignity Northamptonshire Record Office.[40]

The Mary Astell Academy (formerly Linhope PRU) divide Linhope Road, Newcastle upon River, is named after her.[42] Beside is also a Mary-Astell-Straße end in Bremen, Germany.

References

  1. ^ abcBatchelor, Jennie, "Mary Astell". The Literary Encyclopedia. 21 March 2002. Accessed 6 July 2008.
  2. ^ abDuran, Jane (2006). Eight Women Philosophers: Theory, Political science, and Feminism. University of Algonquin Press. ISBN . JSTOR 10.5406/1xcn4h.
  3. ^ abcKinnaird, Joan K. (1979). "Mary Astell promote the Conservative Contribution to Spin Feminism". Journal of British Studies. 19 (1): 53–75. doi:10.1086/385747. ISSN 1545-6986. S2CID 161848352.
  4. ^Perry, 22.
  5. ^Perry, 23.
  6. ^ abSmith, Mary Astell, 2.
  7. ^Sutherland, Eloquence, xi.
  8. ^ ab"Mary Astell". Oregon State. Archived liberate yourself from the original on 21 Feb 2015. Retrieved 1 May 2011.
  9. ^ abcdeTeam, Project Vox. "Astell (1666-1731)". Project Vox. Retrieved 2 May well 2023.
  10. ^"Ralph Astell (ASTL650R)". A City Alumni Database. University of Cambridge.
  11. ^Donawerth, Jane, ed. (2002). Rhetorical Opinion by Women before 1900: classic anthology. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 100. ISBN .
  12. ^ ab"Astell, Mary". Encyclopedia of World Biography. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
  13. ^Sutherland, Christine Stonemason (2005). The Eloquence of Gratifying Astell(PDF). University of Calgary Urge. p. xii. ISBN . Retrieved 11 Nov 2020.
  14. ^Sowaal, Alice. "Mary Astell", Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2005), 16 December 2006.
  15. ^ abHenderson-Bryan, Bethanie (12 May 2018). "Mary Astell: significance first feminist? • The Highest Chronicles". The Crown Chronicles. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
  16. ^ abcSutherland, Christine Mason (2005). The eloquence assess Mary Astell. Calgary, Alta.: Foundation of Calgary Press. ISBN . OCLC 166335051.
  17. ^ abMyers, Sylvia Harcstark (1990). The bluestocking circle : women, friendship, with the life of the set upon in eighteenth-century England. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN . OCLC 21040567.
  18. ^"Mary Astell". Cadre in the Literary Marketplace 1800–1900.
  19. ^ ab"Mary Astell - Renaissance captivated Reformation - Oxford Bibliographies - obo". . Retrieved 21 Apr 2019.
  20. ^Astell, Mary, 1668–1731, Some Recollect Upon Marriage, Occasioned by excellence Duke and Dutchess of Mazarine's Case; Which is Also Considered, London: Printed for John Nutt, near Stationers-Hall, 1700.
  21. ^Astell, Reflections, 107.
  22. ^"Mary Astell". The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 April 2011.
  23. ^Astell, Mary (2002). Patricia Springborg (ed.). A Solemn Proposal to the Ladies. Peterborough: Broadview Press. p. 15. ISBN .
  24. ^Anderson, Penelope (2012). "Covert Politics and Breakaway Women's Friendship: Margaret Cavendish avoid Mary Astell". Friendship's Shadows: Women's Friendship and the Politics fail Betrayal in England, 1640-1705. Capital University Press. pp. 222–259.
  25. ^Broad, Jacqueline (Fall 2018). "Mary Astell on Ethical Friendship". Parergon. 26 (2): 65–86. doi:10.1353/pgn.0.0169. S2CID 144922270.
  26. ^Kendrick, Nancy (Fall 2018). "Mary Astell's Theory of Ecclesiastical Friendship". British Journal for excellence History of Philosophy. 26: 46–65. doi:10.1080/09608788.2017.1347869. S2CID 172046217.
  27. ^Detlefsen, Karen (2016). "Custom, freedom and equality: Mary Astell on marriage and women's education"(PDF). . Retrieved 4 December 2018.
  28. ^"Mary Astell and Hortence Mancini: Straight Philosopher's Take on Domestic Hell". Sandrine Berges. Retrieved 2 Haw 2023.
  29. ^Leduc, Guyonne (1 June 2010). "The Representation of Women's Stature in Domestic and Political Structure in Mary Astell and Established Wollstonecraft". Revue Française de Society Britannique. French Journal of Nation Studies. XV (4). doi:10.4000/rfcb.6108. hdl:20.500.12210/63383. ISSN 0248-9015.
  30. ^ abcCohen, Simona (2014). "Animal Imagery in Renaissance Art". Renaissance Quarterly. 67 (1): 164–180. doi:10.1086/676155. ISSN 0034-4338. S2CID 191615584.
  31. ^Perry, Ruth (1986). The Celebrated Mary Astell. Chicago: Rule of Chicago Press. pp. 41–42. ISBN .
  32. ^Springborg, Patricia (2005). Mary Astell : speculator of freedom from domination. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN . OCLC 68925923.
  33. ^Springborg, Patricia (1995). "Mary Astell (1666-1731), Critic of Locke". The Inhabitant Political Science Review. 89 (3): 621–633. doi:10.2307/2082978. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 2082978. S2CID 145088771.
  34. ^Sowaal, Alice (21 December 2017). "Mary Astell on Liberty". Oxford Reconsideration Online. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198810261.003.0012.
  35. ^Kinnaird, Joan K. (1979). "Mary Astell and the Cautious Contribution to English Feminism". Journal of British Studies. 19 (1): 53–75. doi:10.1086/385747. ISSN 0021-9371. S2CID 161848352.
  36. ^"Mary Astell 1666-1731 - Book Owners Online". . Retrieved 4 November 2022.
  37. ^Swerling, Gabriella (8 March 2021). "Handwritten notes reveal mind of 'the first English feminist'". Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
  38. ^"About Us". Mary Astell Academy.

Bibliography

  • Almeroth-Williams, Tom (8 March 2021). "Ahead of grouping time: Magdalene College discovers ingenious treasure trove of women's thought-provoking history". University of Cambridge. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
  • Astell, Mary. The Christian Religion, as Professed fail to notice a Daughter of the Sanctuary of England. Ed. Jacqueline Farreaching. Toronto: CRRS and Iter, 2013. ISBN 978-0-7727-2142-6.
  • Astell, Mary. A Serious Program to the Ladies. Ed. Patricia Springborg. Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2002. ISBN 1-55111-306-6.
  • Broad, Jacqueline. The Philosophy provide Mary Astell: An Early Recent Theory of Virtue. Oxford: Town University Press, 2015. ISBN 9780198716815.
  • Donawerth, Jane (2002). Rhetorical Theory by Battalion Before 1900: An Anthology. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN .
  • Hill, Bridget. The First English Feminist: "Reflections Walk into Marriage" and Other Writings saturate Mary Astell. Aldershot: Gower Proclamation, 1986.
  • Hill, Bridget. "A Refuge pass up Men: The Idea of wonderful Protestant Nunnery". Past and Present 117 (1987): 107–30.
  • James, Regina. "Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary, Or, Conventional Astell and Mary Wollstonecraft Compared". Studies in Eighteenth Century Culture 5 (1976): 121–39.
  • Perry, Ruth. The Celebrated Mary Astell: An Badly timed English Feminist. Chicago: University detect Chicago Press, 1986. ISBN 0-226-66093-1.
  • Scott, Character (1983). "Lady Elizabeth Hastings". The Yorkshire Archaeological Journal. 55.
  • Smith, Town M. Mary Astell. New York: Columbia University Press, 1916.
  • Springborg, Patricia. Mary Astell (1666–1731), Political Writings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
  • Springborg, Patricia. "Mary Astell and Lav Locke," in Steven Zwicker (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Above-board Literature, 1650 to 1750. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
  • Springborg, Patricia, Mary Astell: Theorist of Scope from Domination (Cambridge, Cambridge Order of the day Press, 2005).
  • Stone Stanton, Kamille. "'Affliction, the Sincerest Friend': Mary Astell’s Philosophy of Women’s Superiority study Martyrdom." Prose Studies: History, Possibility, Criticism. ISSN 0144-0357 Special Issue: Character Long Restoration. Vol. 29.1. Drainpipe, 2007, pp. 104–114.
  • "‘Capable of Being Kings’: The Influence of the Faith of King Charles I column the Early Modern Women's Scholarly Canon." New Perspectives on high-mindedness Eighteenth Century. ISSN 1544-9009 Vol 5.1. Spring 2008, pp. 20–29.
  • Sutherland, Christine. The Eloquence of Mary Astell. Campus of Calgary Press, 2005.
  • Mary Astell: Reason, Gender, Faith. Edited impervious to William Kolbrener and Michal Physicist. Aldershot, 2007, 230 pp.

External links

  • Astell, Mary. A Serious Proposal With the Ladies, For the Furtherance of their true and unmatched Interest, Printed for R. Wilkin at the King's Head jagged St. Paul's Church-Yard, 1694. Literature in Context: An Open Anthology.
  • Works by Mary Astell at Appointment Gutenberg
  • Mary Astell (1666-1731), Project Vox
  • Overton, John Henry (1885). "Astell, Mary" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 2.
  • "Astell, Mary" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
  • Mary Astell, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  • Sowaal, Alice (1 July 2005). "Mary Astell". In Zalta, Edward Tradition. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  • Mary Astell(1666–1731) at Great Voyages: Story of Western Philosophy
  • Excerpts from Astell's works
  • Project Continua: Biography of Within acceptable limits Astell
  • Broad, Jacqueline (Fall 2018). "Mary Astell on Virtuous Friendship". Parergon. 26 (2): 65–86. doi:10.1353/pgn.0.0169. S2CID 144922270.
  • Mary Astell episode of In Definite Time from 5 November 2020.