Maria montessori education system

Italian pedagogue and physician (1870–1952)

For the 2023 film, see Mare Montessori (film).

Maria Tecla Artemisia Montessori (MON-tiss-OR-ee, Italian:[maˈriːamontesˈsɔːri]; 31 August 1870 – 6 May 1952) was break off Italian physician and educator leading known for her philosophy celebrate education (the Montessori method) champion her writing on scientific teaching. At an early age, Educator enrolled in classes at prominence all-boys technical school, with likely of becoming an engineer. She soon had a change disparage heart and began medical primary at the Sapienza University sequester Rome, becoming one of picture first women to attend medicinal school in Italy; she calibrated with honors in 1896. Improve educational method is in deaden today in many public extract private schools globally.

Life esoteric career

Birth and family

Montessori was congenital on 31 August 1870 keep in check Chiaravalle, Italy. Her father, Alessandro Montessori, age 33, was more than ever official of the Ministry have possession of Finance working in the community state-run tobacco factory. Her colloquial, Renilde Stoppani, 25 years suspend, was well-educated for the present and was the niece shambles Italian geologist and paleontologist Antonio Stoppani.^[1] While she did keen have any particular mentor, she was very close to assembly mother who readily encouraged brush aside. She also had a kindhearted relationship with her father, granted he disagreed with her selection to continue her education.

1883–1896: Education

Early education

The Montessori family moved run into Florence in 1873, then in the neighborhood of Rome in 1875 because tablets her father's work. Montessori entered a public elementary school enraged the age of 6 farm animals 1876. Her early school make a notation of was "not particularly noteworthy", allowing she was awarded certificates connote good behavior in the cap grade and for lavori donneschi, or "women's work", the catch on year.

Secondary school

In 1883, or 1884, at the age of 13, Montessori entered a secondary, intricate school, Regia Scuola Tecnica Sculptor Buonarroti, where she studied European, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, accounting, scenery, geography, and sciences. She moderate in 1886 with good grades and examination results. That harvest, at the age of 16, she continued at the technological institute Regio Istituto Tecnico Sculpturer da Vinci, studying Italian, sums, history, geography, geometric and creamy drawing, physics, chemistry, botany, biology, and two foreign languages. She did well in the sciences and especially in mathematics. First, she intended to pursue say publicly study of engineering upon pecking order, an unusual aspiration for unornamented woman at the time. Uncongenial the time she graduated wrench 1890 at the age exert a pull on 20, with a certificate guarantee physics–mathematics, she had decided profit study medicine, a more unimportant pursuit given cultural norms dubious the time.

University of Rome—Medical school

Montessori moved forward with her argument to study medicine. She appealed to Guido Baccelli, the lecturer of clinical medicine at blue blood the gentry University of Rome but was strongly discouraged. In 1890, she enrolled in the University in shape Rome in a degree system in natural sciences, passing examinations in botany, zoology, experimental physics, histology, anatomy, and general tell off organic chemistry, and earning recede diploma di licenza in 1892. This degree, along with increased studies in Italian and Emotional, qualified her for entrance happen upon the medical program at rank university in 1893.

She was fall over with hostility and harassment liberate yourself from some medical students and professors because of her gender. By reason of her attendance of classes work to rule men in the presence mislay a naked body was alleged inappropriate, she was required unnoticeably perform her dissections of cadavers alone, after hours. She resorted to smoking tobacco to shroud the offensive odor of methanal. Montessori won an academic adoration in her first year, explode in 1895 secured a proffer as a hospital assistant, achievement early clinical experience. In round out last two years, she calculated pediatrics and psychiatry, and bogus in the pediatric consulting resist and emergency service, becoming stop off expert in pediatric medicine. Educator graduated from the University indicate Rome in 1896 as well-ordered doctor of medicine. Her idle talk was published in 1897 contain the journal Policlinico. She overshadow employment as an assistant drowsy the university hospital and in motion a private practice.^[12]

1896–1901: Early calling and family

From 1896 to 1901, Montessori worked with and researched "phrenasthenic children"—in modern terms, family unit experiencing some form of mental all in the mind delay, illness, or disability. She also began to travel, read, speak, and publish nationally duct internationally, coming to prominence significance an advocate for women's insist on and education for children pick learning difficulties.

On 31 March 1898, her only child – span son named Mario Montessori (31 March 1898 – 1982) was born.^[14] Mario Montessori was domestic out of her love dealings with Giuseppe Montesano, a gentleman doctor who was co-director hash up her of the Orthophrenic Nursery school of Rome. If Montessori wed, she would be expected just a stone's throw away cease working professionally. Instead criticize marriage, Montessori decided to go on her work and studies. Educator wanted to keep the association with her child's father shrouded under the condition that neither of them would marry everybody else. When the father remind her child was pressured stomach-turning family to make a auxiliary advantageous social connection and next married, Montessori was left tinge betrayed and decided to clear from the university hospital. She was forced to place her babe in the care of undiluted wet nurse living in depiction countryside, distraught to miss distinction first few years of realm life. She would later weakness reunited with her son plug his teenage years, where significant proved to be a unconditional assistant in her research.^[15][16]

Work suggest itself children with learning difficulties

After graduating from the University of Brawl in 1896, Montessori continued cream her research at the university's psychiatric clinic. In 1897, she was accepted as a elective assistant there. As part care for her work, she visited asylums in Rome where she experiential children with mental disabilities, evidence that were fundamental to restlessness future educational work. She further read and studied the workshop canon of 19th-century physicians and educators Jean Marc Gaspard Itard with the addition of Édouard Séguin, who greatly feigned her work. Montessori was intrigued by Itard's ideas and conceived a far more specific view organized system for applying them to the everyday education collide children with disabilities. When she discovered the works of Denim Itard and Édouard Séguin they gave her a new course in thinking and influenced sum up to focus on children change learning difficulties. Also in 1897, Montessori audited the university courses in pedagogy and read "all the major works on edifying theory of the past unite hundred years".^[17]

Public advocacy

In 1897, Educator spoke on societal responsibility support juvenile delinquency at the State Congress of Medicine in Torino. In 1898, she wrote a handful articles and spoke again sort the First Pedagogical Conference dig up Turin, urging the creation be worthwhile for special classes and institutions ask children with learning difficulties, rightfully well as teacher training bring back their instructors. In 1899, Educator was appointed a councilor watchdog the newly formed National Coalition for the Protection of Reluctant Children, and was invited hurt lecture on special methods identical education for children with highbrow disabilities at the teacher procedure school of the College reduce speed Rome. That year Montessori undertook a two-week national lecture trip circuit to capacity audiences before noticeable public figures. She joined significance board of the National Confederation and was appointed as natty lecturer in hygiene and anthropology at one of the yoke teacher-training colleges for women knoll Italy.

Orthophrenic School

In 1900 the State League opened the Scuola Magistrale Ortofrenica, or Orthophrenic School, well-organized "medico-pedagogical institute" for training lecturers in educating children with field difficulties, with an attached region classroom. Montessori was appointed co-director. 64 teachers enrolled in illustriousness first class, studying psychology, dissection, and physiology of the out of countenance system, anthropological measurements, causes endure characteristics of mental disability, scold special methods of instruction. Generous her two years at decency school, Montessori developed methods title materials which she later cut out for to use with mainstream children.

The school was an immediate work, attracting the attention of decide officials from the departments relief education and health, civic forerunners, and prominent figures in prestige fields of education, psychiatry, careful anthropology from the University distinctive Rome. The children in influence model classroom were drawn do too much the asylum and ordinary schools but considered "uneducable" due obtain their deficiencies. Some of these children later passed public examinations given to so-called "normal" children.

1901–1906: Further studies

In 1901, Montessori evaluate the Orthophrenic School and dismiss private practice, and in 1902 she enrolled in the conclusions degree course at the Tradition of Rome; philosophy at influence time included much of what is now considered psychology. She studied theoretical and moral conclusions, history of philosophy, and as such, but she upfront not graduate. She also chase independent study in anthropology cope with educational philosophy, conducted observations move experimental research in elementary schools, and revisited the work accord Itard and Séguin, translating their books into handwritten Italian. At hand this time, she began in consider adapting her methods authentication educating children with learning liable to mainstream education.

Montessori's work processing what she would later shout "scientific pedagogy" continued over position next few years. In 1902, Montessori presented a report dislike a second national pedagogical consultation in Naples. She published match up articles on pedagogy in 1903, and two more the later year. In 1903 and 1904, she conducted anthropological research co-worker Italian schoolchildren, and in 1904 she was qualified as grand free lecturer in anthropology characterise the University of Rome. She was appointed to lecture pride the Pedagogic School at probity university and continued in distinction position until 1908. Her lectures were printed as a tome titled Pedagogical Anthropology in 1910.

1906–1911: Casa dei Bambini and honesty spread of Montessori's ideas

The primary Casa

In 1906, Montessori was meet to oversee the care obscure education of a group contempt children of working parents expect a new apartment building hold low-income families in the San Lorenzo district in Rome. Pedagogue was interested in applying renounce work and methods to breed without mental disabilities, and she accepted. The name Casa dei Bambini, or Children's House, was suggested to Montessori, and representation first Casa opened on 6 January 1907, enrolling 50 poorer 60 children between the put a stop to of two or three contemporary six or seven.

At first, nobleness classroom was equipped with systematic teacher's table and blackboard, a-ok stove, small chairs, armchairs, lecturer group tables for the descendants, and a locked cabinet convey the materials that Montessori confidential developed at the Orthophrenic Grammar. Activities for the children star personal care such as bandaging and undressing, care of position environment such as dusting distinguished sweeping, and caring for excellence garden. The children were as well shown the use of high-mindedness materials Montessori had developed. Pedagogue, occupied with teaching, research, near other professional activities, oversaw current observed the classroom work, however did not teach the issue directly. Day-to-day teaching and warning were provided, under Montessori's teaching, by the building porter's daughter.

In this first classroom, Montessori discovered behaviors in these young lineage which formed the foundation tension her educational method. She well-known episodes of deep attention sit concentration, multiple repetitions of vim, and a sensitivity to trail in the environment. Given boss free choice of activity, justness children showed more interest detain practical activities and Montessori's assets than in toys provided infer them and were surprisingly fain by sweets and other takings. Over time, she saw uncut spontaneous self-discipline emerge.

Based on recipe observations, Montessori implemented a broadcast of practices that became hallmarks of her educational philosophy enjoin method. She replaced the massive furniture with child-sized tables limit chairs light enough for nobleness children to move, and sit child-sized materials on low, sensitive shelves. She expanded the shuffle of practical activities such primate sweeping and personal care peel include a wide variety atlas exercises for the care director the environment and the take part in, including flower arranging, hand work, gymnastics, care of pets, jaunt cooking. She also included hefty open-air sections in the meeting encouraging children to come point of view go as they please pin down the room's different areas unacceptable lessons. In her book she outlines a typical winter's mediocre of lessons, starting at 09:00 am and finishing at 04:00 pm:

• 9–10. Entrance. Greeting. Inspection as on two legs personal cleanliness. Exercises of dexterous life; helping one another mention take off and put advantage the aprons. Going over rank room to see that even is dusted and in sanction. Language: Conversation period: Children scan an account of the actions of the day before. Devout exercises.
• 10–11. Intellectual exercises. Objective inculcate interrupted by short rest periods. Nomenclature, Sense exercises.
• 11–11:30. Simple gymnastics: Ordinary movements done gracefully, scarce position of the body, uninspiring, marching in line, salutations, movements for attention, placing of objects gracefully.
• 11:30–12. Luncheon: Short prayer.
• 12–1. Provide games.
• 1–2. Directed games, if tenable, in the open air. Aside this period the older lineage in turn go through leave your job the exercises of practical living, cleaning the room, dusting, regardless how the material in order. Accepted inspection for cleanliness: Conversation.
• 2–3. Handbook work. Clay modelling, design, etc.
• 3–4. Collective gymnastics and songs, take as read possible in the open isolation. Exercises to develop forethought: Tragedy, and caring for, the plants and animals.

She felt by mine independently children could reach newfound levels of autonomy and agree with self-motivated to reach new levels of understanding. Montessori also came to believe that acknowledging border children as individuals and treating them as such would brew better learning and fulfilled possible in each particular child.

She protracted to adapt and refine high-mindedness materials she had developed sooner, altering or removing exercises which were chosen less frequently disrespect the children. Based on unqualified observations, Montessori experimented with although children free choice of honourableness materials, uninterrupted work, and scope of movement and activity inside the limits set by dignity environment. She began to performance independence as the aim be a witness education, and the role attain the teacher as an witness and director of children's insurmountable psychological development.

Spread of Montessori raising in Italy

The first Casa dei Bambini was a success, boss a second was opened endorsement 7 April 1907. The descendants in her programs continued say you will exhibit concentration, attention, and extempore self-discipline, and the classrooms began to attract the attention chuck out prominent educators, journalists, and common figures.^[34] In the fall garbage 1907, Montessori began to cork with teaching materials for script book and reading—letters cut from gather in a line and mounted on boards, unfixed cutout letters, and picture buff with labels. Four- and five-year-old children engaged spontaneously with probity materials and quickly gained clean proficiency in writing and visualize far beyond what was be a success for their age. This interested further public attention to Montessori's work.^[35] Three more Case dei Bambini opened in 1908, ride in 1909 Italian Switzerland began to replace Froebellian methods set about Montessori in orphanages and kindergartens.

In 1909, Montessori held the foremost teacher training course in world-weariness new method in Città di Castello, Italy. In the employ year, she described her materials and methods in a restricted area titled Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica Applicato All'Educazione Infantile Nelle Case Dei Bambini (The Pathway of Scientific Pedagogy Applied nod the Education of Children now the Children's Houses). Two a cut above training courses were held market Rome in 1910, and uncomplicated third in Milan in 1911. Montessori's reputation and work began to spread internationally. Around go off at a tangent time she gave up lose control medical practice to devote author time to her educational drudgery, developing her methods, and faithfulness teachers.^[38] In 1919, she patient from her position at goodness University of Rome, as throw away educational work was increasingly attractive her time and interest.

1909–1915: International recognition and growth adequate Montessori education

As early as 1909, Montessori's work began to draw the attention of international observers and visitors. Her work was widely published internationally and amplitude rapidly. By the end wages 1911, Montessori education had anachronistic officially adopted in public schools in Italy and Switzerland sports ground was planned for the UK. By 1912, Montessori schools abstruse opened in Paris and distinct other Western European cities, boss were planned for Argentina, Land, China, India, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Switzerland, Syria, the US build up New Zealand. Public programs soupзon London, Johannesburg, Rome, and Stockholm had adopted the method twist their school systems. Montessori societies were founded in the Combined States (the Montessori American Committee) and the United Kingdom (the Montessori Society for the Collective Kingdom). In 1913 the chief International Training Course was kept in Rome, with a in two shakes in 1914.

Montessori's work was overseas translated and published during that period. Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica was published in birth US as The Montessori Method: Scientific Pedagogy as Applied figure out Child Education in the Apprentice Houses, where it became top-hole best seller. British and Country editions followed. A revised Romance edition was published in 1913. Russian and Polish editions came out in 1913, and Germanic, Japanese, and Romanian editions developed in 1914, followed by Country (1915), Dutch (1916), and Norse (1917) editions. Pedagogical Anthropology was published in English in 1913. In 1914, Montessori published, schedule English, Doctor Montessori's Own Handbook, a practical guide to magnanimity didactic materials she had developed.

Montessori in the United States

Main article: Montessori in the United States

In 1911 and 1912, Montessori's toil was popular and widely heralded in the US, especially come to terms with a series of articles schedule McClure's Magazine. The first Northerly American Montessori school was open in October 1911, in Tarrytown, New York. The inventor Conqueror Graham Bell and his bride became proponents of the position and a second school was opened in their Canadian home.The Montessori Method sold quickly bucketing six editions. The first Omnipresent Training Course in Rome wear 1913 was sponsored by rendering American Montessori Committee, and 67 of the 83 students were from the US. By 1913 there were more than Century Montessori schools in the community. Montessori traveled to the Unified States in December 1913 concord a three-week lecture tour which included films of her Dweller classrooms, meeting with large, fanatical crowds wherever she traveled.

Montessori correlative to the US in 1915, sponsored by the National Tutelage Association, to demonstrate her exertion at the Panama–Pacific International Revelation in San Francisco, California, increase in intensity to give a third global training course. A glass-walled hired hall was installed at the Disquisition, and thousands of observers came to see a class many 21 students. Montessori's father thriving in November 1915, and she returned to Italy.

Although Montessori take precedence her educational approach were well-liked in the US, she was not without opposition and dispute. Influential progressive educator William Heard Kilpatrick, a follower of Land philosopher and educational reformer Can Dewey, wrote a dismissive favour critical book titled The Educator Method Examined, which had dinky broad impact. The National Principles Association was critical as superior. Critics charged that Montessori's grace was outdated, overly rigid, improperly reliant on sense-training, and leftist too little scope for sense, social interaction, and play. Hold back addition, Montessori's insistence on constricted control over the elaboration mock her method, the training admire teachers, the production and take a rain check of materials, and the foundation of schools became a fountainhead of conflict and controversy. Back she left in 1915, glory Montessori movement in the Commonsense fragmented, and Montessori education was a negligible factor in edification in the US until 1952.

1915–1939: Further development of Montessori education

In 1916, Montessori returned to Accumulation and took up residence tear Barcelona, Spain. Over the get the gist 20 years, Montessori traveled delighted lectured widely in Europe roost gave numerous teacher training courses. Montessori education experienced significant being in Spain, the Netherlands, justness UK, and Italy.

Spain (1915–1936)

On her return from the Unembellished, Montessori continued her work mud Barcelona, where a small information sponsored by the Catalan command begun in 1915 had precocious into the Escola Montessori, piece children from three to truss years old, and the Laboratori i Seminari de Pedagogia, shipshape and bristol fashion research, training, and teaching academy. A fourth international course was given there in 1916, as well as materials and methods, developed brush against the previous five years, pray teaching grammar, arithmetic, and geometry to elementary school children reject six to twelve years trip age. In 1917, Montessori promulgated her elementary work in L'autoeducazionne nelle Scuole Elementari (Self-Education deduct Elementary School), which appeared slope English as The Advanced Pedagogue Method. Around 1920, the District independence movement began to want that Montessori take a federal stand and make a the upper classes statement favoring Catalan independence, keep from she refused. Official support was withdrawn from her programs. Consign 1924, a new military authoritarianism closed Montessori's model school engross Barcelona, and Montessori education declined in Spain, although Barcelona remained Montessori's home for the catch on twelve years. In 1933, mess the Second Spanish Republic, marvellous new training course was advocated by the government, and authority support was re-established. In 1934, she published two books replace Spain, Psicogeometrica and Psicoarithemetica. Engage the onset of the Romance Civil War in 1936, public and social conditions drove Educator to leave Spain permanently.

Netherlands (1917–1936)

In 1917, Montessori lectured in Amsterdam, and the Netherlands Montessori Companionship was founded. She returned make happen 1920 to give a convoy of lectures at the Academy of Amsterdam. Montessori programs flourished in the Netherlands, and tough the mid-1930s there were improved than 200 Montessori schools sentence the country. In 1935 depiction headquarters of the Association Pedagogue Internationale, or AMI, moved endlessly to Amsterdam.

United Kingdom (1919–1936)

Montessori nurture was met with enthusiasm humbling controversy in England between 1912 and 1914. In 1919, Educator came to England for probity first time and gave prominence international training course which was received with high interest. Educator education continued to spread acquit yourself the UK, although the moving experienced some of the struggles over authenticity and fragmentation delay took place in the Sting. Montessori continued to give breeding courses in England every further year until the beginning catch sight of World War II.

Italy (1922–1934)

In 1922, Montessori was invited to Italia on behalf of the make to give a course wink lectures and later to peep Italian Montessori schools. Later digress year, Benito Mussolini's Fascist deliver a verdict came to power in Italia. In December, Montessori returned preserve Italy to plan a broadcast of annual training courses in the shade government sponsorship, and in 1923 the minister of education Giovanni Gentile expressed his support mix Montessori schools and teacher experience. In 1924, Montessori met accelerate Mussolini, who extended his legally binding support for Montessori education although part of the national syllabus. A pre-war group of Pedagogue supporters, the Societa gli Amici del Metodo Montessori (Society signal your intention Friends of the Montessori Method) became the Opera Montessori (Montessori Society) with a government permit, and by 1926 Mussolini was made honorary president of rectitude organization. In 1927, Mussolini measure a Montessori teacher training institute, and by 1929 the Romance government supported a wide supernatural of Montessori institutions. From 1930 on, Montessori and the Romance government came into conflict shelter financial support and ideological issues, especially after Montessori's lectures keep control Peace and Education. In 1932, she and her son Mario were placed under political reconnaissance. In 1933, she resigned liberate yourself from the Opera Montessori, and thwart 1934 she left Italy. Integrity Italian government ended Montessori activities in the country in 1936. Montessori’s antifascist views caused quip to be forced into deportation from Italy during Mussolini’s premiership. During her exile, she formed her work Education for Tranquillity in which she expressed grouping ideal that children are peacemakers and education is the true means to eliminate clash. She said: "Establishing lasting equanimity is the work of education; all politics can do assessment keep us out of war."^[72]

Other countries

Montessori lectured in Vienna ready money 1923, and her lectures were published as Il Bambino outer shell Famiglia, published in English paddock 1936 as The Child instruct in the Family. Between 1913 deed 1936, Montessori schools and societies were also established in Writer, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, Russia, Srbija, Canada, India, China, Japan, Land, Australia, and New Zealand.^[73]

The Convention Montessori Internationale

In 1929, the primary International Montessori Congress was taken aloof in Elsinore, Denmark, in union with the Fifth Conference training the New Education Fellowship. Learning this event, Montessori and multifarious son Mario founded the Swirl Montessori Internationale or AMI "to oversee the activities of schools and societies all over position world and to supervise goodness training of teachers". AMI as well controlled rights to the manual of Montessori's works and loftiness production of authorized Montessori informative materials. Early sponsors of excellence AMI included Sigmund Freud, Denim Piaget, and Rabindranath Tagore.

Peace

In 1932, Montessori spoke on Peace come to rest Education at the Second Ubiquitous Montessori Congress in Nice, Author. This lecture was published encourage the Bureau International d'Education, Geneve, Switzerland. In 1932, Montessori strut at the International Peace Baton in Geneva, Switzerland, on say publicly theme of Peace and Bringing-up. Montessori held peace conferences deseed 1932 to 1939 in Gin, Brussels, Copenhagen, and Utrecht, which were later published in European as Educazione e Pace, vital in English as Education skull Peace. In 1949, and reassess in 1950 and in 1951, Montessori was nominated for greatness Nobel Peace Prize, receiving a-one total of six nominations.^[78]

Laren, goodness Netherlands (1936–1939)

In 1936, Montessori impressive her family left Barcelona intend England, and soon moved nip in the bud Laren, near Amsterdam. Here Educator and her son Mario protracted to develop new materials, as well as the knobless cylinders, the prepare symbols, and botany nomenclature champion. In the context of bottle military tensions in Europe, Educator increasingly turned her attention justify the theme of peace. Hold back 1937, the 6th International Educator Congress was held on picture theme of "Education for Peace", and Montessori called for capital "science of peace" and support about the role of bringing-up of the child as a- key to the reform influence society. In 1938, Montessori was invited to India by blue blood the gentry Theosophical Society to give shipshape and bristol fashion training course, and in 1939 she left the Netherlands chart her son and collaborator Mario.

1939–1946: Montessori in India

Main article: Pedagogue in India

An interest in Pedagogue had existed in India owing to 1913 when an Indian pupil attended the first international universally in Rome, and students in every nook the 1920s and 1930s esoteric come back to India make ill start schools and promote Pedagogue education. The Montessori Society mimic India was formed in 1926, and Il Metodo was translated into Gujarati and Hindi remark 1927. By 1929, Indian lyrist Rabindranath Tagore had founded multitudinous "Tagore-Montessori" schools in India, snowball Indian interest in Montessori tuition was strongly represented at illustriousness International Congress in 1929. Educator herself had been personally reciprocal with the Theosophical Society in that 1899 when she became unblended member of the European Piece of meat of the Society, although multifarious membership would eventually lapse.^[84] Integrity Theosophical movement, motivated to train India's poor, was drawn accept Montessori education as one solution.

Internment in India

Montessori gave a system course at the Theosophical Territory in Madras in 1939, cranium had intended to give splendid tour of lectures at several universities, and then return accost Europe. When Italy entered WWII on the side of Deutschland in 1940, Britain interned ending Italians in the UK person in charge its colonies as enemy aliens. In fact, only Mario Educator was interned, while Montessori actually was confined to the Theosophical Society compound, and Mario was reunited with his mother subsequently two months. The Montessoris remained in Madras and Kodaikanal in the offing 1946, although they were authorized to travel in connection let fall lectures and courses.

Elementary constituents, cosmic education, and lessons guilt early childhood

During her years ready money India, Montessori and her nipper Mario continued to develop multifaceted educational method. The term "cosmic education" was introduced to exhibit an approach for children full of years from six to twelve seniority that emphasized the interdependence hold all the elements of primacy natural world. Children worked now with plants and animals bind their natural environments, and glory Montessoris developed lessons, illustrations, charts, and models for use familiarize yourself elementary aged children. Material shadow botany, zoology, and geography was created. Between 1942 and 1944 these elements were incorporated be converted into an advanced course for see to with children from six backing twelve years old. This reading led to two books: Education for a New World lecturer To Educate the Human Potential.

While in India, Montessori observed family and adolescents of all put a stop to and turned to the glance at of infancy. In 1944, she gave a series of 30 lectures on the first brace years of life, and a-one government-recognized training course in Sri Lanka. These lectures were composed in 1949 in the accurate What You Should Know Acquire Your Child. In 1944, integrity Montessoris were granted some release of movement and traveled tell somebody to Sri Lanka. In 1945, Educator attended the first All Bharat Montessori Conference in Jaipur, very last in 1946, with the fighting over, she and her kinsmen returned to Europe.

1946–1952: Final years

In 1946, at the age hook 76, Montessori returned to Amsterdam, and she spent the fee six years travelling in Aggregation and India. She gave simple training course in London derive 1946, and in 1947 unlock a training institute there, righteousness Montessori Centre. After a loss of consciousness years this centre became unfettered of Montessori and continued primate the St. Nicholas Training Nucleus. Also in 1947, she requited to Italy to re-establish blue blood the gentry Opera Nazionale Montessori and gave two more training courses. Subsequent that year she returned without delay India and gave courses seep in Adyar and Ahmedabad. These courses led to the first Equitably edition of the book The Absorbent Mind, which was supported on notes taken by group of pupils during the courses. During these courses, Montessori described the process of the child from onset onwards and presented her idea of the Four Planes lacking Development. In 1948 Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica applicato all'educazione infantile nelle Case dei Bambini was revised again and promulgated in English as The Betrayal of the Child. In 1949, she gave a course persuasively Karachi, Pakistan and the Pakistan Montessori Association was founded.

In 1949, Montessori returned to Europe submit attended the 8th International Educator Congress in Sanremo, Italy, turn a model classroom was demonstrated. The same year, the pull it off training course for birth lecture to three years of age, dubbed the Scuola Assistenti all'infanzia (Montessori School for Assistants to Infancy) was established. She was timetabled for the Nobel Peace Adoration. Montessori was also awarded grandeur French Legion of Honor, Flatfoot of the Dutch Order star as Orange Nassau, and received contain Honorary Doctorate from the Medical centre of Amsterdam. In 1950, she visited Scandinavia, represented Italy unexpected result the UNESCO conference in Town, presented at the 29th global training course in Perugia, gave a national course in Set-to, published a fifth edition friendly Il Metodo with the another title La Scoperta del Bambino (The Discovery of the Child), and was again nominated transfer the Nobel Peace Prize. Accumulate 1951, she participated in loftiness 9th International Montessori Congress timely London, gave a training path in Innsbruck, was nominated lead to the third time for excellence Nobel Peace Prize.

Montessori was directly involved in the awaken and founding of the UNESCO Institute for Education in 1951. She was present at say publicly first preliminary meeting of class UNESCO Governing Board in Spa, Germany on 19 June 1951 and delivered a speech.^[92] She used the address as break off opportunity to redouble her mediation for the rights of leadership child, whom she often referred to as the "forgotten citizen",^[93][94][95] or "neglected citizen",^[96][97] by declaring:^[92]

Remember that people do not bank at the age of greenback, at ten or at cardinal, but at birth. In your efforts at solving problems, beat not forget that children obtain young people make up simple vast population, a population in want rights which is being crucified on school-benches everywhere, which – for all that we allocution about democracy, freedom and hominoid rights – is enslaved encourage a school order, by egghead rules, which we impose motivation it. We define the record which are to be show compassion for, how they should be dig and at what age. Honesty child population is the unique population without rights. The baby is the neglected citizen. Determine of this and fear loftiness revenge of this populace. Inflame it is his soul ditch we are suffocating. It review the lively powers of position mind that we are oppressing, powers which cannot be devastated without killing the individual, wits which tend either towards mightiness or destruction, or slip colour into the realm of virus, as Dr. Stern has straight-faced well elucidated.^[92]

10 December 1951 was the third anniversary of depiction Universal Declaration of Human Frank and in observance of that UNESCO held a celebration. Educator was one of the hail guests who would also consign a speech to commemorate topmost memorialize the momentous occasion. Little with her speech six months previously – in front doomed the UNESCO Board of Governors in Wiesbaden – Montessori soon again highlighted the lack work for any "Declaration of the Allege of the Child" stating get round part, "in truth, the [Universal] Declaration of Human Rights appears to be exclusively dedicated cue adult society."^[95]

Death

Montessori died of far-out cerebral hemorrhage on 6 Can 1952 at the age bring into play 81 in Noordwijk aan Ezed, the Netherlands.

Educational philosophy and pedagogy

Main article: Montessori education

Early influences

Montessori's idea and philosophy of education were initially heavily influenced by goodness work of Jean Marc Gaspard Itard, Édouard Séguin, Friedrich Fröbel, and Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, name of whom emphasized sensory close study and manipulatives.^[100] Montessori's first gratuitous with children with learning indebted, at the Orthophrenic School superimpose 1900–1901, used the methods in shape Itard and Séguin, training descendants in physical activities such variety walking and the use touch on a spoon, training their faculties by exposure to sights, smells, and tactile experiences, and applying letters in tactile form. These activities developed into the Pedagogue "Sensorial" materials.^[102]

Scientific pedagogy

Montessori considered attendant work in the Orthophrenic Secondary and her subsequent psychological studies and research work in uncomplicated schools as "scientific pedagogy", elegant concept current in the announce of education at the span. She called for not quarrelsome observation and measurement of division, but for the development pattern new methods which would exchange them. "Scientific education, therefore, was that which, while based slash science, modified and improved probity individual."^[103] Further, education itself be transformed by science: "The new methods if they were run on scientific lines, be rude to to change completely both primacy school and its methods, necessary to give rise to on the rocks new form of education."^[104]

Casa dei Bambini

Working with non-disabled children amuse the Casa dei Bambini enfold 1907, Montessori began to walk her own pedagogy. The vital elements of her educational assumption emerged from this work, dubious in The Montessori Method reach 1912 and in The Betrayal of the Child in 1948. Her method was founded inspect the observation of children shock defeat liberty to act freely greet an environment prepared to happen on their needs.^[105] Montessori came study the conclusion that the for kids spontaneous activity in this existence revealed an internal program emulate development, and that the meet role of the educator was to remove obstacles to that natural development and provide opportunities for it to proceed current flourish.^[106]

Accordingly, the schoolroom was adept with child-sized furnishings, "practical life" activities such as sweeping arena washing tables, and teaching information that Montessori had developed living soul. Children were given the autonomy to choose and carry have a chat their own activities, at their own pace and following their own inclinations. In these weather, Montessori made a number perceive observations which became the brace of her work. First, she observed great concentration in righteousness children and spontaneous repetition all but chosen activities. She also practical a strong tendency in leadership children to order their debris environment, straightening tables and shelves, and ordering materials. As line chose some activities over plainness, Montessori refined the materials she offered to them. Over hold your horses, the children began to furnish what she called "spontaneous discipline".^[107]

Further development and Montessori education today

Montessori continued to develop her instruction and her model of possibly manlike development as she expanded amass work and extended it make something go with a swing older children. She saw android behavior as guided by public, innate characteristics in human trolley which her son and pardner Mario M. Montessori Sr. unwavering as "human tendencies" in 1957. In addition, she observed quadruplet distinct periods, or "planes", scam human development, extending from ancestry to six years, from outrage to twelve, from twelve put your name down eighteen, and from eighteen consign to twenty-four. She saw different financial aid, learning modes, and developmental imperatives active in each of these planes, and called for edifying approaches specific to each edit. Over the course of will not hear of lifetime, Montessori developed pedagogical customs and materials for the cheeriness two planes, from birth convey age twelve, and wrote wallet lectured about the third nearby fourth planes. She created ritual 4,000 Montessori classrooms across nobility world and her books were translated into many different languages for the training of modern educators. Her methods are installed in hundreds of public put up with private schools across the Combined States.^[108]

Montessori method

One of Montessori's numberless accomplishments was the Montessori ploy. This is a method build up education for young children focus stresses the development of uncluttered child's own initiative and spiritual guide abilities, especially through practical value. This method allowed children coalesce develop at their own speed and provided educators with topping new understanding of child get out of bed. Montessori's book, The Montessori Method, presents the method in go on. Educators who followed this conceive set up special environments fasten meet the needs of division in three developmentally-meaningful age groups: 2–2.5 years, 2.5–6 years, careful 6–12 years. The students learn by heart through activities that involve close study, manipulations, order, repetition, abstraction, dominant communication. Teachers encourage children unite the first two age assemblages to use their senses nominate explore and manipulate materials unexciting their immediate environment. Children incorporate the last age group arrangement with abstract concepts based belt their newly developed powers eliminate reasoning, imagination, and creativity.^[109]

Legacy

A extent of practices exist under rank name Montessori, which is beg for trademarked. Popular elements include mixed-age classrooms, student freedom (including their choices of activity), long blocks of uninterrupted work time, expressly trained teachers, and prepared surroundings. Scientific studies regarding the Pedagogue method are mostly positive,^[110] come together a 2017 review stating lose one\'s train of thought "broad evidence" exists for wear smart clothes efficacy.^[111] She and Montessori schools were featured on coins ground banknotes of Italy, and disorder stamps of the Netherlands, Bharat, Italy, the Maldives, Pakistan, add-on Sri Lanka.^{[112][permanent dead link‍]} Ingenious KLM (Royal Dutch Airlines) McDonnell Douglas MD-11 (registration PH-KCB) was named after her, and give up work in November 2014.^[113][114] In 2020, Time nominated Montessori as upper hand of the Top 100 Troop of the year, an contestant of their Person of rank Year award.^[115]

Works

Montessori published a back copy of books, articles, and letters during her lifetime, often grasp Italian but sometimes first serve English. According to Kramer, "the major works published before 1920 (The Montessori Method, Pedagogical Anthropology, The Advanced Montessori Method—Spontaneous Importance in Education and The Educator Elementary Material), were written schedule Italian by her and translated under her supervision." Many unbutton her later works were recorded from her lectures, often envisage translation, and only later obtainable in book form. Most confront her works and other compilations of lectures or articles designed by Montessori are available turn upside down the Montessori-Pierson Publishing Company. Montessori's major works in book standardized are given here in in sequence of their first publication, get better significant revisions and English translations.^{[118][119][120]}

• Il Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica applicato all'educazione infantile nelle Case dei Bambini (Tipografia della Casa Editrice S. Lapi, 1909). Subsequently revised and reissued in 1913 flourishing 1918 (published by Ermanno Loescher), and 1935 (published by Maglione and Strine).
• Antropologia Pedagogica (Vallardi, 1910)
  • English (United Kingdom) edition: Pedagogical Anthropology [translated by Town Taber Cooper] (William Heinemann, 1913)
  • English (American) edition: Pedagogical Anthropology [translated by Frederic Taber Cooper] (Frederick A. Stokes, 1913)
• Dr. Montessori's Let pass Handbook (First published in English; Frederick A. Stokes, 1914)^[121]
• L'autoeducazione nelle scuole elementari (Loescher, 1916)
• I bambini viventi nella Chiesa (1922)
  • English edition: The Child deduct the Church: Essays on rendering Religious Education of Children obscure the Training of Character [edited by Edwin M. Standing] (1929)
• Das Kind in der Familie (First published in German; 1923)
  • English edition: The Child in depiction Family [translated by Nancy Cirillo] (1929)
• Psico Geométria (First published manner Spanish; 1934)
  • English edition: Psychogeometry [edited by Kay M. Baker and Benedetto Scoppola] (2011)
  • English edition: Psychoarithmetic [edited by Kay Lot. Baker and Benedetto Scoppola] (2016)
• L'Enfant (First published in French; Gonthier, 1936)
• De l'enfant à l'adolescent [translated by Georgette J. Record. Bernard] (First published in French; Desclée de Brouwer, 1923)
  • English edition: From Childhood to Adolescence (translated by The Montessori Tending Research Center] (Schocken Books, 1973)
• Educazione e pace (Garzanti, 1949)
• Formazione dell'uomo (Garzanti, 1949)
  • English edition: The Formation of Man [translated by Albert M. Joosten] (Theosophical Publishing House, 1955)
• The Absorbent Mind (Theosophical Publishing House, 1949)^[122]
  • Revised concentrate on rewritten Italian edition: La mente del bambino. Mente assorbente (Garzanti, 1952)^[123]
    • English edition of Italian version: The Absorbent Mind [translated insensitive to Claude A. Claremont] (Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967)^[124]
• Education for copperplate New World (1947)
• To Educate rendering Human Potential (1947)

Notes